Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water and Associated Health Risks in Primary Schools of the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria

Abstract

This study assessed the bacteriological quality of drinking water sources and associated health risks among primary school children in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria, to inform Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene interventions. This is a cross-sectional study in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria, carried out between April and June 2025. Twenty-four public primary schools were selected using multistage random sampling across three area councils (Abuja Municipal Area Council, Bwari, and Kuje). A total of 1,514 pupils participated. Fifty-two water samples were collected in sterile containers from main drinking sources (taps and water bottles) and analyzed for bacterial contamination using Nutrient Agar, MacConkey Agar, and Eosin Methylene Blue Agar through membrane filtration and multiple tube fermentation techniques. Indicators included total coliforms, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterococci. Health status and water access data were gathered using questionnaires and observation checklists. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 29, employing descriptive statistics and chi-square tests for associations, alongside multiple regression for predictors of related diseases. The results showed that of the 52 samples, 84.62% exhibited bacterial growth on Nutrient Agar (range: 2.0x10⁰ to 2.81x10² CFU/ml), while 48.08% showed growth on MacConkey Agar (5.0x10⁰ to 1.86x10² CFU/ml) and Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (1.2x10⁰ to 2.64x10² CFU/ml), exceeding the World Health Organization standards. A significant association existed between poor water quality and water-related disease prevalence (P<0.001). Multivariate regression indicated that water source contamination, main drinking water source, and treatment status significantly predicted related disease prevalence (F [9, 1504] = 26.545, P<0.001, R=0.370). In conclusion, drinking water in the Federal Capital Territory primary schools is highly contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, posing substantial health risks to pupils. Urgent government-led investments in water infrastructure, treatment, hygiene education, and routine monitoring are essential to enhance school Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene systems and reduce disease burden.