Extension and Institutional Determinants of Climate Adaptation among Small Cardamom Farmers in Idukki, Kerala

Abstract

Aims: This study examined whether climate-risk perception and self-efficacy predict adaptation behaviour and whether variation in local institutional environments contributes to differences in adaptation outcomes among small cardamom farmers in Idukki District, Kerala. Study Design: Cross-sectional field survey. Place and Duration of Study: Three Spices Board divisional areas in Idukki District, Kerala, India, during 2022–2026. Methodology: Data were collected from 180 small cardamom farmers using a structured questionnaire covering climate-risk perception, adaptation behaviour, self-efficacy, perceived effectiveness, perceived cost, institutional trust, service availability and extension access. Descriptive statistics, reliability diagnostics, multiple linear regression and moderated regression were used to examine behavioural and institutional relationships. Results: Climate-risk perception was high and relatively homogeneous, whereas self-efficacy and perceived cost showed greater variation. Risk perception (β = 0.112, P = .015) and self-efficacy (β = 0.156, P = .005) were significant positive predictors of adaptation behaviour. Moderated regression identified a significant administrative-division effect (β = 1.533, P = .015), indicating variation in adaptation outcomes across local institutional settings. Conclusion: High climate-risk awareness alone did not correspond to uniform adaptation outcomes. The findings indicate that extension systems may be more effective when they combine practical demonstrations, locally relevant advisories, trusted community networks and links to financial and risk-transfer services to strengthen farmer confidence and support context-specific adaptation.